[Itech] Fwd: Tomorrow's Professor eNewsletter: 1363. Learning Fundamental Principles, Generalizations, or Theories

Thu Oct 30 00:38:46 EDT 2014

Hello All,

I thought you might enjoy reading this one.

Dr. Franklin

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From: Rick Reis <reis at stanford.edu>
Date: Thu, Oct 30, 2014 at 4:16 AM
Subject: Tomorrow's Professor eNewsletter: 1363. Learning Fundamental
Principles, Generalizations, or Theories
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as it confirms their understanding or misunderstanding while learning is
still taking place. It's easier to learn things the right way the first
time than try to unlearn and relearn it later.*

1363. Learning Fundamental Principles, Generalizations, or Theories

*Folks:*

[image: Rick Reis]The posting below looks at ways to help improve students
comprehension of basic principles. It is IDEA Item #5 by Walt Wager,
Florida State University and Marilla Svinicki, University of Texas at
Austin and is from POD-IDEA Center Notes on Learning series. The series
editor is Michael Theall, Youngstown State University. The IDEA Center. POD
is the Professional and Organizational Development Network [
http://www.podnetwork.org/] and the IDEA Center is a nonprofit organization
whose mission is to serve colleges and universities committed to improving
learning, teaching, and leadership performance.[
http://www.theideacenter.org/] ©1999-2014 The IDEA Center. All rights
reserved. Reprinted with permission.

Regards,

Rick Reis
reis at stanford.edu
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Tomorrow's Teaching and Learning

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IDEA Objective #2: Learning Fundamental Principles, Generalizations, or
Theories

Background

Ms. Jones enters the classroom and gets the student's attention by pushing
a chair across the front of the room. She asks the class how pushing this
chair demonstrates Newton's third law of motion. Shenifa raises her hand
and says, "Newton's third law is the one about an equal and opposite
reaction. So when you push the chair, friction is pushing back and you have
to apply a force that breaks that and other forces that are keeping the
chair from moving."  "Very good, Shenifa," replies Ms. Jones, "How would
you describe Newton's third law in your own words?"

In this example, Ms. Jones is working at getting the students to
"comprehend" principles, theories and generalizations in science. Bloom (1)
describes comprehension as a level of learning above knowledge or recall of
information. Bloom states, "...when students are confronted with a
communication, they are expected to know what is being communicated and to
be able to make some use of the material or ideas contained in it" (1, p.
89). Shenifa had to do more than just memorize Newton's laws of motion in
order to answer Ms. Jones's two questions; she had to understand them. To
know what Bloom means by this we can look at some specifics.

How can students show they "comprehend" a principle, generalization or
theory? Bloom (1) describes three ways. First, they can restate the
principle, generalization or theory in their own words, which Bloom calls
translation.  When asked what is Newton's third law of motion, the student
might answer, "It's when two things hit each other, they push each other
equally in opposite directions."

Bloom states that translation can take one of three forms: translation into
the student's own words, as we've just seen; translation into symbolic form
e.g., from verbal to graphical form (inserting arrows into a picture to
depict the forces operating on the chair in the example above); translation
from one verbal form to another, e.g., metaphor, analogy.

A second way to demonstrate understanding is what Bloom calls
interpretation.  The student's response might be - "That's when two things
push on each other in opposite directions, the forces are equal in both
directions, like when you roll two pool balls at each other they hit and
push on each other in opposite directions." Another form of interpretation
might involve the student's recognition that the communication is
describing the operation of a principle, like realizing that Newton's laws
explain how it is possible for car to move forward on a road.

A third way to demonstrate understanding is extrapolation, which
"...includes the making of predictions based on understanding of the
trends, tendencies, or conditions described in the communication" (1, p.
90). For example, the communication might ask, "Why is it easier for three
people to push a car than one person?" An acceptable answer might be that
the car pushes back with a force equal to the force of the person pushing
it, so with more people pushing, the force is distributed among the three.
While there may be any number of acceptable responses, the answer would
have to include the following components 1) a force, 2) an equal counter
force, and 3) in the opposite direction.

Helpful Hints

So, what teaching techniques are appropriate for attaining these desired
levels of understanding?

Gain and direct attention. Do something to focus the learner on the
learning task at hand (2, 3). In the case of principles, the instructor
might start with a question to pique the curiosity about the principle to
be learned, and point to its application to the real world. This
foreshadows the eventual focus on principles rather than facts. IDEA
research has found that several instructional methods related to
"stimulating student interest" are important to engaging the learner in the
principles and theories addressed in courses (see POD-IDEA Center Note #4
"Demonstrated the importance and significance of the subject matter," #8
"Stimulated students to intellectual effort beyond that required by most
courses," and #13 "Introduced stimulating ideas about the subject").

Make clear how each topic fits in the course (see POD-IDEA Note #6). In
comprehension learning tasks, the student must understand the meaning of
the component concepts, and the relationships among them.

Recall prerequisite learning and connect to new material. All new learning
is hooked in some way into previous learning (2, 3). Comprehension involves
bringing to mind previously learned knowledge related to the new learning.
In this case it is likely that the student has encountered an explanation
of Newton's first and second laws. So they are familiar with the concepts
of inertia, mass, force, acceleration. If during instruction these laws are
tied together such that an understanding of one can be used to support
understanding of the next, the chances are good that the students will
learn the similarities and differences among them, and will be able to
differentiate the examples that represent each of the theories or
principles.

Theories of how concepts like these are learned suggest that, after
reminding students of where they might have encountered this concept before
(either personally or in a previous class), the instructor would give a
good, clear definition of the concept followed by what is called a
"paradigmatic example," which is simply the example that most people would
think of if you asked for an example of the concept. For example, in the
case of Newton's laws, the example of rolling a ball along a surface is the
simplest example that would come to mind for most people. The instructor
could even use bowling or soccer as a more concrete example that most
students would recognize. (This example later serves as a benchmark against
which to check every other example they think of, so it pays to think it
through thoroughly.) Then the instructor or the students generate other
examples of the principle. Seeing or even categorizing positive and
negative instances (non-examples) of the concept helps the students to
clarify their understanding. The instructor can illustrate different
relationships or characteristics of the concept by moving on to more
complex or related examples, for example, using the example of how
different strengths of the bowler would cause the ball to roll faster or
slower. In fact, the instructor could even invite the students to suggest
other scenarios and what they might say about the concept.

Use the three modes of understanding (translation, interpretation, and
extrapolation) in the examples given during instruction. The use of these
three modes of understanding would represent learning guidance in the form
of elaboration with a variety of examples of the concepts or principles
being learned. Translation can be accomplished by having the students state
the principles in their own terms; there could even be a contest to see who
comes up with the best alternative statement of the principle or theory.
For interpretation, the students could be asked to demonstrate the
principle or draw a graph of it. For extrapolation, the teacher might
demonstrate the interaction of two moving objects and ask the students what
they think will happen if some variable changes. The teacher might explore
the related concepts and principles at the same time, so the students might
see how they relate to each other.

Incorporate practice and feedback. One important component of learning at
this level is practice and feedback. The principle just learned should
become the foundation for learning future principles. Furthermore, the more
the principle is used in future activities, the better and stronger the
neural connections (4), and the easier it will be to recall and use.
Unfortunately, research in the area of transfer has shown that many
students fail to recognize that previously learned skills can be
transferred to a new task situation unless they are prompted to do so (5).
However, the more often this type of spaced practice occurs, the higher the
probability that learners will develop an orientation for transfer (6).

The students would get practice in the elaboration activity suggested
above, and the results could be used by the teacher to reinforce correct
understanding and remediate misunderstanding. Practice and feedback can be
accomplished in many different ways, from collaborative activity to
computerized tutorials and quizzes. Especially helpful are engaging
activities where the students can practice putting things into their own
words, giving examples of the principles or theories, illustrating with
graphics or models, and/or, given a set of conditions, setting up a
demonstration. This practice allows students to get feedback on their
understanding.

The importance of feedback can't be overstated. Students value feedback, as
it confirms their understanding or misunderstanding while learning is still
taking place. It's easier to learn things the right way the first time than
try to unlearn and relearn it later.

Model intellectual skills. Consider employing the "cognitive
apprenticeship" model. In this model the instructor acts as a master model
to illustrate the intellectual skill being learned and then coaches the
students as they practice solving real problems using those illustrated
strategies (7).

Assessment Issues

Assessment of comprehension tasks follows the same pattern as the behaviors
practiced in instruction. The student can be asked to identify relevant
theories or principles when given a scenario, or be asked to translate,
interpret or extrapolate a particular principle within a range of
conditions. However, assessment of comprehension should stay within the
parameters described in the statement of instructional outcomes. That is,
if learning is at the comprehension level, assessment should not test
application or evaluation of the principles or concepts.

Finally, instruction should include opportunities for lots of practice
spaced out across the learning. Spaced practice is periodic use of the
principles in dialog and other learning activities. Knowledge that is not
practiced or used to support new knowledge quickly decays, and becomes
inert knowledge. Reminding students in successive class periods of what
they learned before and having them do something with that information will
keep it fresh and eventually more solidly stored in long term memory. This
is the principle behind a spiral curriculum, in which the instruction
returns to earlier principles but in more complex situations. An example
would be moving from comprehension to application of a principle in a
subsequent class period.

Comprehension of fundamental principles, generalizations, and theories is
generally taught as a prerequisite for application level learning, where
students are expected to demonstrate understanding by applying the
knowledge they just learned to new situations they haven't encountered
before. Instruction that teaches comprehension level learning should be
followed as soon as possible with application level activities.
Application level learning strengthens the students' ability to recall the
previously learned knowledge. Applications are potentially more meaningful
and motivating to students, especially if they have a manipulative and or
emotional component, because they reinforce the conceptual understanding
associated with comprehension. Comprehension of fundamental principles,
generalizations and theories can be an exciting and motivating part of
learning, and it facilitates the students' future application of knowledge.
Because of this, it is worth the time and effort to teach it.

                                                        References and
Resources

Bloom, B. S. (Ed.). (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The
classification of educational goals handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York:
David McKay Company, Inc.

Gagne, R. M. (1977). The conditions of learning, 3rd Ed. NY: Holt Rinehart
& Winston

Gagne, R. M., Wager, W. W., Golas, K. C., & Keller, J. M. (2005).
Principles of Instructional Design, 5th Ed. Stamford, CT: Wadsworth/Thomson.

Zull, J. E. (2002). The art of changing the brain. Sterling, VA: Stylus
Publishing

Gick, M., & Holyoak, K. (1980) Analogical problem solving. Cognitive
Psychology, 12, 306-355.

Bransford, J., Brown, A., & Cocking, R. (Eds.) (1999). How people learn:
Brain, mind, experience and school.Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Collins, A. (1991). Cognitive apprenticeship and instructional technology.
In L. Idol & B.F. Jones (Eds.), Educational values and cognitive
instruction: Implications for reform (pp. 121-138). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Related POD-IDEA Center Notes

IDEA Item #4 "Demonstrated the importance and significance of the subject
matter," Nancy McClure
http://ideaedu.org/research-and-papers/pod-idea-notes-instruction/idea-item-4-demonstrated-importance-and-significance

IDEA Item #6 "Made it clear how each topic fit into the course," Michael
Theall
http://ideaedu.org/research-and-papers/pod-idea-notes-instruction/idea-item-6-made-it-clear-how-each-topic-fits-course

IDEA Item #8 "Stimulated students to intellectual effort beyond that
required by most courses," Nancy McClure
http://ideaedu.org/research-and-papers/pod-idea-notes-instruction/idea-item-8-stimulated-students-intellectual-effort

IDEA Item #12 "Gave tests, projects, etc. that covered the most important
parts of the course," Barbara E. Walvoord
http://ideaedu.org/research-and-papers/pod-idea-notes-instruction/idea-item-12-gave-tests-projects-etc-covered-most

IDEA Item #13 "Introduced stimulating ideas about the subject," Michael
Theall
http://ideaedu.org/research-and-papers/pod-idea-notes-instruction/idea-item-13-introduced-stimulating-ideas-about

IDEA Item #15 "Inspired students to set and achieve goals which really
challenged them," Todd Zakrajsek
http://ideaedu.org/research-and-papers/pod-idea-notes-instruction/idea-item-15-inspired-students-set-and-achieve-goals

Additional Resources

IDEA Paper No. 24: Improving Instructors' Speaking Skills, Goulden
http://ideaedu.org/research-and-papers/idea-papers/idea-paper-no-24

IDEA Paper No. 41: Student Goal Orientation, Motivation, and Learning,
Svinicki
http://ideaedu.org/research-and-papers/idea-papers/idea-paper-no-41

©2006 The IDEA Center

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Reproduction for publication or sale may be done only with prior written
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Copyright © 1999-2014 The IDEA Center, Inc. All rights reserved. Direct
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educational/training activities. The IDEA Center material available through
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without the express prior written permission of the copyright holder.

Source URL:
http://ideaedu.org/research-and-papers/pod-idea-notes-learning/idea-objective-2-learning-fundamental-principles
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*"A teacher affects eternity; [she]he can never tell where the influence
stops." - Henry Adams*Dr. Teresa Franklin
Professor, Instructional Technology
Fulbright Research Scholar to Turkey 2013-14
Department of Educational Studies
The Gladys W. and David H. Patton College of Education
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